Transformational Leadership and Risk Taking to Improve Student Essay

Transformational Leadership and Risk Taking to Improve Student Achievement - Essay Example To be successful, schools must develop a clear sense of purpose, strong commitments on the part of their staffs, and productive working relationships with their communities. In a study conducted by Hillard (2009), the effectiveness of professional interactions on teachers and administrators as a faculty group in school improvement practices and educational reform to improve instruction and learning were the main findings of the research. To create long-term solutions for systemic change in a learning environment there was an intense emphasis on practical methods. If leaders focused on previous aspects or formulas, it is considered a reasonable or a practical approach. But conquering today’s difficult problems and ultimately achieving success requires creative leadership (Palus & Horth, 2005). In the case of complex challenges, an organized and a planned approach becomes essential; the alignment of structure paired with energy and support, and a commitment to a mission and visi on comes from creative leadership (Palus & Horth, 2005). The task of change is difficult because of the many variables that contribute to the growth of educational leaders. As stated by Bass (2007), many challenges face the strategic leader who must deal with both the need for continuity and the need for change. In addition to the need for continuity, a strategic leader puts an emphasis on setting direction for the organization. Given the turbulent environments that organizations work within, continuous learning is a key driver of their ability to remain adaptive and flexible - that is, to survive and effectively compete (Zagorsek, Dimovski, and Skerlavai (2009). Creating value and purpose for the organization is an essential part of leadership. However, creating goals and creating value is not enough; the leader must ensure that such change is sustainable. Remaining faithful to the direction set forth by an educational leader is key to the development of his or her staff (Jacobson, Johnson, Ylimaki, & Giles, 2009). Leadership can be related to the interaction between the leader and the follower. However, the numerous facets of such interaction and the intensity of the working relationship influence the outcome – accomplishing the goals set. Effective leadership can be observed when organizations develop all members’ skills and values related to organizational learning (Collinson, 2008). Many l eaders become effective due to the quality of the followers. Some researchers maintain the traditional views of a leader as a taskmaster and as one who relies on situational variables and contingency approaches produced by previous factors that guide their performance (Antelo, Henderson, & St. Clair, 2010). A transformational leader conducts him or herself in ways that are different from the convention or norms; leaders pay more attention to the needs of others, not just as elements of the workplace, but as people (Trapero & de Lozada, 2010). An analysis of the theory of transformational leadership as it relates to new principals from the leadership academy and student achievement will be studied. According to Cowie and Crawford (2008), given the significance of the post of principal and the complex changes in the principal's role in recent years, the extent to which principals’ preparation relates to what is expected of them once they are in post and what it is that they act ually do is critically important. School districts and other educational agencies are dispensing money and manpower in the development of leadership for their organizations. As stated by Barnett and Shore (2009), instead of having to create change efforts, organizations should be built to change. In an attempt to understand what

Job search plan Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Job search plan - Research Paper Example Consequently, the formation forms a crucial source of natural gas reservoirs. Thus natural gas extracted from these reservoirs would be used as a source of energy. Marcellus Shale, like other fossil fuel formations such as oil and coal, was essentially formed through decomposition of remains of plants and animals over a long spell of time. Natural gas could be formed through two processes which include the following: Thermogenic formation. This process refers to the formation of natural gas as a result of temperature and pressure changes in the Earth’s crust resulting in compression effects on the overlying debris. Consequently, Marcellus Shale formation was as a result of a thermogenic formation process. Thus, the shale is a geological formation that was formed as a result of accumulation of sediments in the sea. Consequently, organic matter (such as the remains of plants and animals) was compressed at extremely high pressures for a long time. This process resulted in the formation of thermogenic methane. The organic particles decomposed were covered in mud and other sediments. Consequently, the debris exerted pressure on the underlying organic matter. This cycle was carried on for long spells of time amounting to millions of years. Thus, with time, more and more sediments and debris was piled on the organic matter beneath the materials. This, in turn, continued to exert increased pressure on the organic matter. As a result, the organic matter was compressed. Consequently, the compression resulting from the overlying debris broke down the organic matter. This process was also aided by the exi stence of extremely high temperatures beneath the Earth’s crust (Victor, and Jaffe 26). Since the crust’s temperature increase with depth, at shallow deposits with low temperature, more oil was produced as opposed to natural gas. However, at deep deposits with extremely high

Bill Gates and Oprah Winfrey | Leadership

Bill Gates and Oprah Winfrey | Leadership This report presents a review of leadership theories in brief and the contrast and similarity between Bill Gates and Oprah Winfrey Leadership style; who are two of the well known people in the world. The report begins with an introduction about the two well known faces, Opera Winfrey and Bill Gates who are consider as the successful leaders in the world. The next section would be the biography of Opera and Bill gates in brief. The following section gives a brief review of leadership theories which have been applied in different organizations during these years. Bill Gates and Oprah Winfrey Leadership Qualities which are the main idea of this paper is discussed in the current section and the aim of this section is the better understanding of the importance of leadership quality in a successful business. The next section discuss the similarity and contrast between Bill Gates leadership quality and the leadership quality of Opera Winfrey in terms of leadership theories in general In the current section , my own opinion about Bill Gates and Oprah Winfrey Leadership style would be explained The report conclusion is about he Introduction Welcome to this report which was a glimpse of the Management and Leadership theories and how famous people such as Opera Winfrey and Bill Gates applied them to achieve their success. It draws together a range of materials detailing approaches to leadership and leadership theories. The ability to inspire people to reach great performance and success is a skill that leaders need. Passion, purpose, listening and meaning help make a leader inspirational. The ability to communicate that passion, purpose and meaning to others helps establish the motivating culture of your organization. These points will tell you how to enable inspiration and motivation in the people you lead. In the list of the worlds ranking mega-leaders, there are few women. This is undoubtedly not for any lack of talent or leadership ability among women, but more likely because the step between being a good leader and being a world-renowned mega-leader is quite large, and few women or men, for that matter have been able to pull together all of the abilities and resources necessary to make it happen. In Oprah Winfreys case, however, mega-leadership was achievable, and she has not only achieved it but keeps increasing her leadership base. On the other hand Bill Gates is one of the most successful e ntrepreneurs of the world. He is able to run a successful and a profitable entrepreneurship for many years and even today, we cannot survive in this competitive world without it. Vision and dedication are the key factors of being a successful entrepreneur and these skills were present in Bill Gates from the beginning. Bill Gates Bill Gates was born on October 28, 1955 in a family having rich business, political and community service background. Bill strongly believes in hard work. He believes that if you are intelligent and know how to apply your intelligence, you can achieve anything. From childhood Bill was ambitious, intelligent and competitive. These qualities helped him to attain top position in the profession he chose. In school, he had an excellent record in mathematics and science. Still he was getting very bored in school. Bills parents came to know their sons intelligence and decided to enroll him in a private school, known for its intense academic environment. Bill Gates and his friends were very much interested in computer and formed Programmers Group in late 1968. In the next year, they got their first opportunity in Information Sciences Inc, which they were selected as programmers. ISI (Information Sciences Inc.) agreed to give them royalties whenever it made money from any of the groups progra m. As a result of the business deal signed with Information Sciences Inc., the group also became a legal business. Bill Gates and his close friend Allen started new company of their own, Traf-O-Data. They developed a small computer to measure traffic flow. From this project they earned around $20,000. The era of Traf-O-Data came to an end when Gates left the college. In 1973, he left home for Harvard University. He took the standard freshman courses with the exception of signing up for one of Harvards toughest mathematics courses. He did well over there, but he couldnt find it interesting too. At the end of Bills first year, his best friend Allen, came close to him so that they could follow some of their ideas. That summer they got job in Honeywell. Allen kept on pushing Bill for opening a new software company. Within a year, Bill Gates dropped out from Harvard. Then he formed Microsoft. Microsofts vision is A computer on every desk and Microsoft software on every computer. Bill is a visionary person and works very hard to achieve his vision. ( Ravi Kumar Paluri) Oprah Winfrey Born in Kosciusko, Mississippi, Oprah Winfrey was reared by her grandmother on a farm where she began her broadcasting career by learning to read aloud and perform recitation at the age of three. After suffering abuse and molestation, at the age of 13, she was sent to Nashville to live under her fathers strict discipline As strict as he was, says Oprah, he had some concerns about me making the best of my life, and would not accept anything less than what he thought was my best. Oprah Winfreys broadcasting career began at age 17, when she was hired by WVOL radio in Nashville, and two years later signed on with WTVF-TV in Nashville as a reporter/anchor. She attended Tennessee State University, where she majored in Speech Communications and Performing Arts. In 1976, she moved to Baltimore to join WJZ-TV news as a co-anchor, and in 1978 discovered her talent for hosting talk shows when she became co-host of WJZ-TVs People Are Talking, while continuing to serve as anchor and news reporter. In January 1984, she came to Chicago to host WLS-TVs AM Chicago, a faltering local talk show. In less than a year, she turned AM Chicago into the hottest show in town. The format was soon expanded to one hour, and in September 1985 it was renamed The Oprah Winfrey Show. Seen nationally since September 8, 1986, The Oprah Winfrey Show became the number one talk show in national syndication in less than a year. In June 1987, in its first year of eligibility, The Oprah Winfrey Show received three Daytime Emmy Awards in the categories of Outstanding Host, Outstanding Talk/Service Program and Outstanding Direction. In June 1988, The Oprah Winfrey Show received its second consecutive Daytime Emmy Award as Outstanding Talk/Service Program, and she herself received the International Radio and Television Societys Broadcaster of the Year Award. She was the youngest person and only the fifth woman ever to receive the honor in IRTSs 25-year history. Winfreys business and personal interests are wide ranging and she has managed to accomplish success in several areas. Apart from being a successful Talk show host she is also a producer, successful actress, Founder of the successful O, the Oprah Magazine, co founder of Oxygen Media, and a generous Philanthropist. Her entrepreneurial spirit and desire to change society for the better have brought her and her numerous companies many awards and achievements. Oprah Winfrey was named one of the 100 Most Influential People of the 20th Century by Time magazine, and in 1998 received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. (Opera Winfrey) REVIEW OF LEADERSHIP THEORY A review of the leadership literature reveals a developing series of schools of thought from Great Man and Trait theories to Transformational leadership (see table). Later theories begin to consider the role of followers and the related nature of leadership, whilst early theories tend to focus upon the characteristics and behaviors of successful leaders. Great Man Theories Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with inborn qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term man was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept, which is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theories Trait Theories The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in plenty and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the adjectives in the dictionary which describe some positive or worthy human attribute, from ambition to zest for life Behaviorist Theories These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behavior are observed and categorized as styles of leadership. This area has probably attracted most attention from practicing managers Situational Leadership This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being exercised. For example, whilst some situations may require a domineering style, others may need a more participative approach. It also proposes that there may be differences in required leadership styles at different levels in the same organization Contingency Theory This is an improvement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on identifying the situational variables which best predict the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular circumstances Transactional Theory This approach emphasizes the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of contract through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers Transformational Theory The central concept here is change and the role of leadership in visualizing and implementing the transformation of organizational performance Bill Gates Leadership Qualities Bill Gates with her vision has a clear, vivid picture of where to go, as well as a firm find on what success looks like and how to achieve it. Jack Welch, former chairman and CEO of General Electric Co., said, Good business leaders create a vision, articulate the vision, passionately own the vision and relentlessly drive it to completion. Bill Gates communicates clearly and passionately and this is one of the most powerful points of this manager. Bill Gates has the discipline to work toward his vision single-mindedly, as well as to direct his manner and those of the team toward the goal. Bill Gates leadership is participative style because he involves his subordinate in decision making. He is a flexible person and he recognized his role was to be visionary of the company. When ever needed he bring professional manager for managing and well structure of the organization. Gates is a strong and energizing person his enthusiasm, hard working nature, judgment skills reflect his personality. His motivating power and involving his friends to working with him became the success of Microsoft. Integrity is the integration of outward actions and inner values (Bergmann, 1999). Bill Gates as a person of integrity is the same on the outside and on the inside. Such an individual can be trusted because he never veers from inner values, even when it might be expeditious to do so. Bill Gates has the trust of followers and therefore must display integrity. Dedication means spending whatever time or energy is necessary to accomplish the task at hand (Bergmann, 1999). Bill Gates inspires dedication by example, doing whatever it takes to complete the next step toward the vision. Magnanimity means giving credit where it is due (Bergmann, 1999). Bill Gates as a leader ensures that credit for successes is spread as widely as possible throughout the company. Conversely, Bill Gates takes personal responsibility for failures. This sort of reverse magnanimity helps other people feel good about them and draws the team closer together. Leaders with humility recognize that they are no better or worse than other members of the team. Bill Gates is not self-effacing but rather tries to elevate everyone.. Mahatma Gandhi is a role model for Indian leaders, and he pursued a follower-centric leadership role. Openness means being able to listen to new ideas, even if they do not conform to the usual way of thinking. Bill Gates is able to suspend judgment while listening to others ideas, as well as accept new ways of doing things that someone else thought of. Openness builds mutual respect and trust between leaders and followers, and it also keeps the team well supplied with new ideas that can further its vision. Creativity is the most important leadership quality of Bill Gates. Bill gates develop computer language new Altair 8080 pc which became the foundation of Microsoft. Bill continuously develops two other computer languages. When IBM develops their first pc and which need operating system to run the computer, Microsoft develops MS-DOS for IBM. Gates adopting the changes very fast that are his enthusiasm vision and hard working give him the success. Gates always recognized him as a visionary he always recognize professional management, he decentralize authority to make organization structure better. Fairness means dealing with others consistently and justly. Bill gates check all the facts and hear everyone out before passing judgment. He avoids leaping to conclusions based on incomplete evidence. When people feel they that are being treated fairly, they reward a leader with loyalty and dedication. Bill gates know how to use humor to energize followers. Humor is a form of power that provides some control over the work environment. One of the most important quality of Bill gates is that he is and supportive. Bill gates always take the blame for a loss, turnover, miss executed play, etc. If the problem wasnt his fault, he wont blame anyone else; he either blames himself, or dont say anything. Bill gates also know how to take charge. When the rest of the team seems confused, he will take control and guide the rest of the members. Bill gates know how to stay calm under pressure. While normal people may crack or feel flustered, he knows how to guide his team to victory and stay cool. He also has confidence in his team members, he has a good communication and, to let his team mates improve themselves. If a mistake is done, he will accept the mistake and take that mistake to improve the team. Oprah Winfrey Leadership Qualities Oprah Winfrey has an exemplary character. One of the important points for leaders is trustworthy to lead others whish she has it. She is enthusiastic about her work or cause and also about her role as leader (Blackler, 2003). It is a fact that people will respond more openly to a person like Oprah Winfrey that has passion and dedication. She has the ability to be able to be a source of inspiration, and be a motivator towards the required action or cause. Although, if we have a comparison between the responsibilities and positions of Oprah Winfrey and Bill Gates we can find many differences, she need to be seen to be part of the team working towards the goal same as Bill Gates. Result of researches shows that in order to lead and set direction a leader needs to appear confident as a person and in the leadership role and she is confident. She has the ability to function in an orderly and purposeful manner in situations of uncertainty. She is tolerant of ambiguity and remains calm, composed and steadfast to the main purpose (Blackler, 2003). Oprah Winfrey as well as keeping the main goal in focus is able to think analytically. Not only does a good leader view a situation as a whole, but is able to break it down into sub parts for closer inspection. She stand up for what is right, even in the face of popular disagreement. She also accepts blame when at fault. The most amazing thing is she has an inward desire that motivates her to excel; she also has the willing to act without orders and to offer well-considered recommendations for the improvement of the command. She is accountable, and that quality forms the cornerstone of leadership. She makes decisions, good or bad, and accepts the responsibility and consequences for those decisions. Compare between Leadership qualities of Gates and Winfrey Oprah Winfrey as a leader is more assertive and persuasive, has a stronger need to get things done and is more willing to take risks than Bill Gates. He remains stymied in the same occupational title and pay level for many years. He become too valuable in his positions in Microsoft .Bill Gates does not have any more strong will to make risk and put his self in dangerous situation. Oprah Winfrey was also found to be more empathetic and flexible, as well as stronger in interpersonal skills that bring the special ability for her to read situations accurately and take information in from all sides same as Bill Gates. Both of them as two of biggest leaders in the world are able to bring others around to their point of view, so that the people they are leading feel more understood, supported and valued. When we have a comparison between these two we can find that both of them have the ability to attract peoples attention and the great ability to digest input of the entire people of the world. Beside of that, they have Keeping people involved on the task at hand and understanding when to push and when not to. Leadership comes in many styles, shapes, and forms. Some people are leaders because they lead by example to better a group of people, and others are leaders because people learn from their decisions and business ideas. As a leader, Bill Gates believed that his managers should have their own personal authority. Indeed, each manager was expected to act like his own little CEO in his own modest right. He desired his managers to be responsible for his own influence on the stream of things and the tides of change. From here, we could tell them Gates also show some form of participative leadership, whereby Gates demand his managers to be creative and able to solve complex problems, and improving their quality. I personally prefer this style of leadership that Gates uses as it seems to be in the middle between not being engaged and over controlling, allowing the organization to be able to innovate and grow. Oprah Winfrey, communicate clearly and honestly to their followers, she use a combination of their personality, beliefs and capabilities to lead. Motivating followers to support and implement her ideas through change is an important part of the way that she uses to influence the peoples of different societies. She wishes inspire trust and confidence in her followers and with strategic thinking and trust building, support and empower her followers to be a catalyst for change. Conclusion As a conclusion, after a review of leadership theories in brief and the contrast and similarity between Bill Gates and Oprah Winfrey Leadership style; who are two of the well known people in the world we can find that there is not one standard, correct style for all leaders in all circumstances at all times and any group or individual behaves differently from each other. Each leader has to find differences and adapt according to the situation but at all they use same ideas in different ways for one target SUCCESS. Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Overview and Applications Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Overview and Applications How does Magnetic Resonance imaging work and how can it influence the future? An Introduction to Magnetic Resonance Imaging[1][2][3]: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used as an accurate form of disease detection which is usually used to confirm a patients condition, as well as a method of looking at trauma to the brain, examples of which could be bleeding and swelling. Alongside these uses MRI can be used to look at the soft tissues, as well as information on the structure of joints. Prior to the introduction, the only method for diagnosis for many of these problems were invasive methods such as surgery, and x-rays or CT-scans which were less accurate and ionizing, which could have a lasting effect upon the body. The use of MRI scans is only a recent phenomenon, with the first image on a person being produced as late as 1977, by Paul Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield who received a shared Nobel prize for their work on this matter. Both scientists were looking at how nuclear magnetic resonance imaging could be used to look at solids and liquids, and both formed the theory behind it all, but it was Sir Peter Mansfield who developed the method used in MRI by firstly solving how to define a slice of a matter, and also how to produce images from multiple-pulse experiments. Although the work on producing images for biological specimens only came about as a result of the fact that it would be too hard to produce images of a solid. How does Magnetic Resonance Imaging work[4][5]? Magnetic resonance imaging involves a series of steps which are all explained below, in order to produce the final image that is used for diagnostics. Nuclear Spin The body’s mass is approximately 10% hydrogen, of which 70% is contained in water, and due to the fact that protons produce a large signal to a MRI scanner a more accurate image is produced, as they are in such large abundance in the body in the water. The hydrogen nuclei in the body spin about an axis, this is illustrated in figure 1.1. As a result of the spinning protons being charged, the spinning of a nuclei along an axis causes a small circulating electric current, which in turn causes a small magnetic field. If a collection of these nuclei were to be placed in a stronger external magnetic field (BØ), most of the nuclei will align their spin in the same direction as the external field. As you can see from figure 1.2 not all of the hydrogen nuclei are aligned with the direction of the magnetic field, and this is because both alignments are possible, but the one with the field is a lower energy state, whilst the protons against the field are at a higher energy state. The protons are continually oscillating back and forth between the two states, because there is a tendency for nuclei in a high energy state to return to a lower energy state by emitting some of its energy to surrounding nuclei. There is usually enough thermal energy in the material for the nuclei to be flipped back. How do protons precess about an axis?[6] Spinning protons when in the presence of an external magnetic field do not arrange themselves perfectly parallel or anti-parallel to the magnetic field, as the nuclei always have equal but opposite magnetic charges they cancel out when there is no magnetic field. The particles tend to precess about the magnetic field lines, and this is illustrated in figure 1.3. The nuclei complete a full rotation around the magnetic field in a period that is directly proportional to the strength of the external magnetic field. As you can see from the figure 1.4 the period gets smaller for a larger magnetic field and thus the frequency of the precession increases. This frequency is fixed depending upon the strength of the magnetic field, and is called the Larmor frequency and the relationship between them is given by: f = (ω)/ (2Ï€) Where ÃŽ ¥ is a constant called the gyromagnetic frequency, which varies for each type of particle. In MRI the Larmor frequency is about 50 MHz, which is in the radio frequency part of the magnetic frequency spectrum and the magnetic field has a magnitude of 1 or 2 Teslas. Why is the Larmor frequency is of that form? TheLarmor frequencyinMRI is the rate of precession of the magnetic moment of the proton around the external magnetic field. The frequency of precession is related to the strength of the external magnetic field,BØ. TheLarmor precession of nuclei of a substance placed in a magnetic field B0 is calculated from Larmor Equation, the Larmor precession is measured in Radians seconds-1: ω = ÃŽ ³BØ Where ÃŽ ¥ is a constant called the gyromagnetic frequency, which varies for each type of particle, but in the case of MRI is a constant as you are only affecting hydrogen nuclei. As the external magnetic field would be uniform and constant, to work out the Larmor frequency you need to divde the Larmor precession by 2Ï€f. The frequency is measured in Hertz which is s1 and as ω is measured in Radians seconds-1 so to work out the frequency needed you divide this by 2Ï€f which results in the Larmor frequency which is per second. The Net Magnetization Vector The precession of the nuclei only has a small effect upon the total magnetic field, which is only a small increase in magnetic field along the external field axis. This is because there are slightly more nuclei in parallel to the external magnetic field, than nuclei which are anti parallel to the external magnetic field. Although all of the nuclei in the material will be precessing at the Larmor frequency, they all may not be in phase. So the tranverse waves created by the nuclei get cancelled out which means that there will only be a small increase in field strength in the direction of the external field as not all of the nuclei parallel to the external field will get cancelled out. Why do we need superconducting magnets to make the protons resonate? Superconducting magnets are used in magnetic resonance imaging of the human body because magnetic resonance imaging requires extremely uniform fields across the subject and extreme stability over time. By having the magnet coils in the superconducting state helps to achieve parts-per-million spacial uniformity over a space large enough to hold a person, and parts per million hour-1 stability with time. This is the reason for using superconducting magnets alongside the fact that they are able to produce a magnetic field of a magnituted of 1 or 2 Teslas. How to make the protons resonate? In order to produce a magnetic resonance image we need to make the protons precess about the external field lines in phase with each other ; which will produce a small net transverse field which rotates about the axis of the external field at the Larmor frequency. This is the magnetic field that can be detected and in turn produce a magnetic resonance image. These three stages are all depend upon the nuclei precessing in phase with each other, this is done by making them absorb radio-frequency radiation of the same frequency of the Larmor frequency. The absorbtion of the energy causes low-energy state protons to flip into the high-energy state, which means that the protons are anti-parallel to the external field lines and also precessing in phase with the applied signal, which in turn mean that they are in phase with each other. The number of protons that flip depends upon the duration of the radio frequency pulse, which is applied. How a magnetic resonance image is produced: In order for a magnetic resonance image to be produced, you need to be able to locate the part of the body that has an ailment, in order to do this three smaller non uniform magnetic fields are added to the constant field. If you look at figure 1.5 you are able to see how these magnetic fields are applied, with one running the length of the patient’s body, this is the z-axis and this is used to define slices through the body. The body in this diagram is the sample, with the other magnetic fields being applied in the x-axis and y-axis, within the plane of a slice. The magnetic field strength at any point is the sum of the four fields that sets a unique larmour frequency and phase at each point in the body. To actually produce an image a pulse of electromagnetic radiation is sent through the body at a set radio frequency. The protons with a Larmor frequency will absorb energy from the pulse and flip into the higher energy state. As a result a transverse field, which is rotating at the Larmor frequency, is produced for the specific part of the body. As a result of Flemings Left hand rule, the rotating magnetic field that is actually an alternating field induces an electric current in the detector. The image is gradually formed by sending a sequence of radio-frequency pulses through the body at different frequencies to pick out the Larmor frequencies at different locations. The signals produced and the relaxation time involved are processed by computer to assemble the image. How is a clear image is produced on the scan? The relaxation time is the time taken for the protons to fall back down to their lower energy state after the radio-frequency pulse is turned off. The protons fall into their lower energy state by passing their energy on into neighboring atoms. The relaxation time is measured by the change in the intensity of the signal induced in the detector. The relaxation time is used to show the contrast in tissue within an image, with the relaxation time dependent upon the nature of atoms close to the stimulated protons. Thus a clear image of the tissue can be seen. The safety of magnetic resonance imaging scanning: MRI is regarded as one of the safest ways of confirming a diagnosis, although there are some exceptions where a patient has form of metal in their body, which interferes with the powerful superconducting magnets, which allows a magnetic resonance image to be produced. An example of something, which could cause a magnetic resonance image to not work, is tattoos that have metal fragments in the ink that is used to form the image. The metal is dangerous because metal objects can be forcefully drawn to the magnet; if these metal objects are embedded in your body, they can be drawn to the magnet and cause damage.The magnetic resonance image can also be dangerous for pregnant ladies. Using magnetic resonance imaging to detect cancer in the body A future use of MRI is to detect cancer; cancer cells need far more energy than most other types of tissues in the body, so a new technique has just been developed where a patient suspected of having cancer is injected with glucose. This results in a differing brightness on the image produced with the tumor appearing far brighter. Although this is currently only a concept that is still some way from being used on the general public, and this is in part due to the fact that the magnetic field strength used to produce these results is far higher than being used currently and we would need to see if the same results would be produced at a lower field strength. Conclusion In conclusion by taking the simple model already in place MRI has a bright future in diagnosis and detection of diseases, with MRI being the safest form of diagnosis for soft tissue as a result of its non-ionizing nature and clear results that it produces. The future for MRI will become brighter as the cost of using it falls over time, so that it will be more freely available and thus use for mass cancer detection could occur for example. MRI has already had a major impact on practices undertaken by doctors in assessing a patients needs, and the use of MRI stands to continue these changes further as more uses are developed. Bibliography Introduction to MRI: http://www.vistadiagnostics.co.uk/mri_explained.htm http://www.teslasociety.com/mri.htm http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2003/mansfield-bio.html How does Magnetic Resonance imaging work? http://science.howstuffworks.com/mri.htm http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/mri/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1121941/ Page 504-505 Advancing Physics By Steve Adams and Jonathon Allday The larmor Frequency http://radiopaedia.org/articles/larmor-frequency The safety of MRI scanning http://pain.about.com/od/testingdiagnosis/p/having_an_MRI.htm Using MRI to detect cancer in the body: http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/146309.php Are there any modern alternatives to this technology? http://www.medicinenet.com/mri_scan/page3.htm http://www.nhs.uk/news/2013/07July/Pages/Could-new-tests-use-sugar-to-help-detect-cancer.aspx Gihan Fernando1 [1] http://www.medicinenet.com/mri_scan/article.htm [2] http://www.teslasociety.com/mri.htm [3] http://www.vistadiagnostics.co.uk/mri_explained.htm [4] Advanced Physics by Steve Adams and Jonathon Allday- Page 504, Magnetic Resonance Imaging [5] http://www.simplyphysics.com/page2_1.html [6] http://radiopaedia.org/articles/net-magnitisation-vector

The True American Hero :: Essays Papers

The True American Hero Heroism demands self-sacrifice, self-discipline, self-confidence and self-respect. Ulysses S. Grant had these qualities in their most complete form. He set out from humble beginnings, and failed. At the age of 38 was a conspicuous failure. Then, like few of us, he succeeded beyond belief. Had he not had tremendous greatness within him, he could never have accomplished what he did. How did such a simple, honest and humble man raise himself in the eyes of his people and the world to the highest position a man or woman can reach - that of a national hero? Grant remained a child at heart throughout his life, and seems never to have realized that he was one. His faith in the goodness of humanity was unbounded, and he was taken advantage of. His simplicity of nature was remarkable, yet this simplicity was the mainspring of his success; certainly it was the first asset of his generalship. While McClellan could see nothing beyond his own operations and Halleck nothing outside of his textbooks, Grant saw things as they were, uncontaminated by his ideas or anyone elses. He saw that the entire problem of winning the civil war was nothing more than an equation between pressure and resistance. The side which pressed the hardest along the lines of least resistance was going to win. His simplicity was the foundation of his modesty and honesty. He could not bear shams, pretensions and humbug. He despised after-dinner speeches and such orations because he felt they were silly; he simply could not deliver them. His orders were always clear, because they were always simple, honest and modest. He could not understand why a man should be dishonest, for to him honesty always seemed the best policy. His modesty taught him self-control, and his sense of duty was exceeded only by his duty towards his country. Self-control leads to self-respect, to dignity without arrogance, to pride without vulgarity, to ambition without selfishness, and Grant possessed all these many virtues to the highest degree. He was not "dignified" in the way that General Lee was, though rough and ready, he was always a gentleman, in the best meaning of the word. He was proud of his soldiers and his work, and ambitious to do his utmost for his country. He had so great a faith in the Union cause that he never for a moment lost hope that in the end it would succeed.

Organizational Behavior Outline

CHAPTER 2: Challenges for Managers †¢ What are the four challenges in globalization? 1. Globalizing the firm’s operation to compete the global village 2. Leading a diverse workforce 3. Encouraging positive ethics, character, and personal integrity 4. Advancing and implementing technological innovation in the workplace †¢ What are the changes in the global marketplace? 1. Social changes 2. Political changes Social and political upheavals have led organizations to change the way they conduct business and encouraged their members to think globally. †¢ Self-Assessment: Planning for a global career Self-assessment is the critical first step in any career planning effort. Self assessment is especially important for those whose goal is to live an work abroad, i. e. , where familiar personal and professional support systems may be non-existent. Readers interested in pursuing international employment should consider their answers to the following types of questions in assessing their readiness for international employment: 1. Why am I interested in an international social work career? 2. Am I interested in effecting change on a macro/global level? 3. Am I interested in working directly with clients from a variety of cultural backgrounds? Both? 4. Am I interested in the personal and professional development which results from the experience of living abroad, whatever the employment situation? 5. Does my commitment to an international career include being based abroad, or would I prefer to be based in my home country? 6. What skills do I have to offer in an international setting? [These skills might include: â€Å"generic† social work abilities such as strengths in psycho-social assessment, supervision or program development; specific social work skills related to particular issues or clients, such as pre-natal services for dolescents, AIDS prevention programming, or working with clients who are substance abusers; and technical and linguistic skills which may be particularly useful in international settings, such as computer skills, health professions training, and of course language competencies]. 7. What are my general and specific practice interests? [These might include considerations of: macro vs. micro pra ctice; administrative vs. case management positions; and work evolving from its setting, such as direct service in an agency base, research and teaching in a university setting, or advocacy work in a human rights organization]. . What international/intercultural experience do I have? [This might include personal background, work, travel or study abroad, or work with clients of diverse education]. 9. What are my issues/preferences concerning lifestyle and adjusting to new settings? Would I feel comfortable with the living conditions in a developing country or do I need a more Westernized lifestyle? Have I tested my abilities to be flexible in adjusting to unfamiliar surroundings and cultures? 10. What is my geographic preference? Is it global in scope? Developed or developing country? 11. Finally, what is my â€Å"dream job†? In planning a career, as opposed to searching for a particular position, it is crucial to have a sense of direction. Even should your anticipated direction change in six months of starting your first job, your preparatory process will serves as the impetus for more careful exploration and experimentation. A catch phrase for the nineties has become â€Å"Think globally, act locally†. With an international social work career, it is possible to have the best of both worlds–that of acting on major international social issues, either at home or abroad, and wherever one chooses to work to be engaged in solving social problems of worldwide dimensions. As the social context of the human services becomes increasingly more internationalized, it is crucial that social workers broaden their world view; the personal and professional rewards for doing so can be immense. †¢ Self-Assessment Activity: How much do you know about sexual harassment? As defined by the Philippine Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995, sexual harassment is â€Å"a request for a sexual favor, accepted or not, from an employer, employee, manager, teacher, instructor, professor, coach, trainer or other persons who have authority, influence or moral ascendancy over another.    It is committed by anyone who demands a sexual favor in exchange for work, promotion or other privileges. Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature when: 1. Submission to such conduct is made either explicitly or implicitly a term or condition of an individual's employment, or 2. Submission to or rejection of such conduct by an individual is used as a basis for employment decisions affecting such individual, or 3. Such conduct has the purpose or effect of unreasonably interfering with an individual's work performance or creating an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment. Sexual harassment includes many things†¦ 1. Actual or attempted rape or sexual assault. 2. Unwanted pressure for sexual favors. 3. Unwanted deliberate touching, leaning over, cornering, or pinching. 4. Unwanted sexual looks or gestures. 5. Unwanted letters, telephone calls, or materials of a sexual nature. 6. Unwanted pressure for dates. 7. Unwanted sexual teasing, jokes, remarks, or questions. . Referring to an adult as a girl, hunk, doll, babe, or honey. 9. Whistling at someone. 10. Cat calls. 11. Sexual comments. 12. Turning work discussions to sexual topics. 13. Sexual innuendos or stories. 14. Asking about sexual fantasies, preferences, or history. 15. Personal questions about social or sexual life. 16. Sexual comments about a person's clothing, anatomy, or looks. 17. Kissing sounds, howling, and sma cking lips. 18. Telling lies or spreading rumors about a person's personal sex life. 19. Neck massage. 20. Touching an employee's clothing, hair, or body. 21. Giving personal gifts. 22. Hanging around a person. 23. Hugging, kissing, patting, or stroking. 24. Touching or rubbing oneself sexually around another person. 25. Standing close or brushing up against a person. 26. Looking a person up and down (elevator eyes). 27. Staring at someone. 28. Sexually suggestive signals. 29. Facial expressions, winking, throwing kisses, or licking lips. 30. Making sexual gestures with hands or through body movements. Sexual harassment can be a tricky thing to prove. While it’s a recognized threat in the workplace, very few are willing to come out and complain. Find out what you can do about sexual harassment in case it happens in your office: The Sexual Harassment Act not only covers those who are directly involved but also those who cooperate â€Å"in the commission of† the violation. Sexual harassment can take several forms. If you’re the object of attention, you could be at the receiving end of malicious stares, jokes, comments, notes, letters, graffiti or physical contact. What to do in case of sexual harassment? Sexual harassment can be difficult to prove, especially if it becomes a he said/she said event. To make sure you protect yourself, do the following: Say ‘No’ or ‘Stop it’ firmly and loud enough for someone to hear. If there are potential witnesses, reject the advances through a firm but polite refusal. Unless you’ve been harassed many times before, don’t make the first offense a sideshow. * Express your objection to the person’s behavior clearly and firmly but avoid making too much fuss about it. Saying ‘Stop it! ’ in a loud, shrilly voice or screaming at the top of your lungs might be viewed as proof that you’re a hysterical person. In case of an investigation, you might come off as unreliable or worse, prone to exaggeration. Remember that you might be dealing with a sneaky person who can dismiss your complaint as an exaggerated reaction. * Express your disapproval and be clear about it. If the person asks you why, tell them it makes you uncomfortable and you don’t think its appropriate behavior. Don’t smile and don’t apologize, either. You’ll come off as weak and unconvincing. * Document the event/s. Write down the date, time, place and witnesses to the incident in detail. Use a journal or a notebook and keep it in a safe place. In case you have to file for a complaint later, this will come in handy as evidence. If the harassment escalates, you can also show the journal or notebook to your supervisor. * Inform someone about what happened. Tell your closest confidant or friend at the office. If the incident involved touching, violence, psychological or physical threats, do the same and then go to your manager or supervisor. In his absence, talk to the HR person immediately. Don’t turn the incident into office gossip, however. If you must inform anyone, make sure they are either a person of authority or someone who could become a reliable witness for you. * File a complaint. Chances are your company has policies regarding sexual harassment in the workplace. Check your company manual or go to HR to make sure you make the right steps. They should be able to help you resolve this problem. CHAPTER 3: Personality, Perception, and Attribution †¢ Research diversity statistics in the Philippines for the workplace THE â€Å"LAY DOWN OR LAY OFF POLICY† IN THE WORKPLACE Many women workers are subjected to sexual harassment or sexual violence in the workplace (Bureau of Women and Young Workers,  Sexual Harassment at the Workplace, 1991. ). There is a phrase in the Philippines that sums up the sexual violence experienced by women in the workplace. We call it the â€Å"Lay Down or Lay Off Policy†. Prior to the enactment of the Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 (RA 7877), women resorted to the pertinent provisions of the Revised Penal Code to seek redress for sexual harassment. SIBOL comments that, â€Å"While Republic Act No. 7877 is a step forward in addressing sexual harassment, it has several significant limitations. † †¢ Research an MBTI Instrument and answer it. CHAPTER 4: Attitude, Values and Ethics What is Machiavellianism? How this relate to you personally? Machiavellianism is the political doctrine of Machiavelli, which denies the relevance of morality in political affairs and holds that craft and deceit are justified in pursuing and maintaining political power. I do not agree with this doctrine since the core of my personality is morality. †¢ Exercise: Chinese, Indian and American Value s Chinese| Indian| American| 1. Mandate of Heaven 2. Confucian relations 3. Harmony 4. The Chinese value the importance of the family 5. bedience, moderation and self-restraint   6. They want to fulfill their own potential 7. With time and patience, the mulberry leaf becomes a silk gown 8. Learning is a treasure that will follow its owner everywhere 9. A book holds a house of gold 10. Courtesy demands reciprocity| 11. Cooperation 12. Group harmony 13. Modesty 14. Value is placed on respect for an individual’s dignity and personal autonomy 15. Placidity is valued, as is the ability to remain quiet and still 16. Patience 17. Generosity 18. Indifference to ownership 19. Indifference to saving 20. Indifference to work ethic 21. Moderation in speech 22. Careful listening 23. Careful observation 24. Permissive child rearing| 1. Personal control over the environment/ responsibility 2. Change is seen as natural and positive 3. Time and its control 4. Equality/ fairness 5. Individualism/ independence 6. Self-help initiative 7. Competition 8. Future orientation 9. Action/ work orientation 10. Informality 11. Directness/ openness/ honesty 12. Practicality/ efficiency 13. Materialism/ acquisitiveness|

Cannon

Select a company you believe to be innovative (this should be an internationally known company). Explain what makes this company innovative? In your answer, use relevant theory and examples to illustrate why you believe the company is innovative. Cannon – an innovative company Founded in 1937 with the specific goal of making the best quality camera available to customers, Canon’s passion for the power of image has since extended its technology into many other markets and has established it as a world leader in both consumer and business imaging solutions. Its solutions comprise products, ranging from digital compact and SLR cameras, through broadcast lenses and portable X-ray machines, to multi-function and production printers, all supported by a range of value added services. Canon invests heavily in R&D to deliver the richest and most innovative products and services to satisfy customers’ creative needs. In my essay I will show that through disruptive, strategic and product innovation Canon remains the leader in the market of all its products. Canon has proved that disruptive innovation brings many benefits to businesses. Christensen and Raynor (Christensen and Raynor, 2003) justify that new entrant firms will win with leading firms of an industry through disruptive innovation, by commercializing a simpler, more convenient product that sells for less money and appeals to new or unattractive customer set. Canon has proved that the best way for an upstart company to attack established competitors is to disrupt them. Disruptive innovations do not attempt to bring better products to established customers in existing markets. Rather, they disrupt and redefine that trajectory by introducing products and services that are not as good as currently available products. Still, disruptive technologies offer other benefits – typically, they are simpler, more convenient, and less expensive products that appeal to new or less-demanding customers (Todd and Bessant, 2009). Once the disruptive product gains a share in the new or low-end markets, the improvement cycle begins. In addition, the pace of technological process exceeds customers’ ability to use it; the previously not good enough technology eventually improves to intersect with the needs of the more demanding customers. When that happens, the disruptors are on the path that will ultimately beat the incumbents. Throughout Canon’s history, the company has used disruptive innovation in order to gain market share. In 1982 Canon developed the first personal copier. It gained its name because the reproduction elements were all contained in a cartridge that users could just replace themselves when they ran out. Canon’s desktop photocopiers were a new-market disruption; in that they enabled people to begin conveniently making their own photocopies, rather than taking their originals to the corporate high-speed photocopy center where a technician had to run the job for them. The high-speed Xerox machine was very complicated, needed servicing frequently and only a technician could operate it. When Canon made photocopying so convenient, people ended up making a lot more copies, therefore through disruption innovation Canon has created new value network. Additionally, Canon’s innovation sources come from monitoring the market and following and adjusting to its competitors. In 1987 Ricoh revolutionized the photocopier industry with the release of the first digital photocopier. Thus, Canon followed releasing their digital photocopier products, which effectively consisted of an integrated scanner and laser printer. In 2001 Canon released its first two digital personal copiers, the PC1080F and the PC1060. Furthermore, with the disruptive innovation of touch screen technology, the company has decided to launch its own touch screen display in order to compete in the market. The new Digital IXUS 200 IS features Canon’s first ever touch screen display that delivers intuitive control to the customer and greater ease of use. Canon’s success is also based on the company’s commitment to strategic innovation. Strategic innovation means experimenting with new strategies, with new combinations of the ‘What, Who and How’ of a business. If a company identifies a new customer base, it will start behaving in a way that best satisfies the specific needs of those customers. This behavior will most likely be different from that of established competitors who are serving different customers (Markides, 1997). In the case of Cannon, Xerox leased big photocopiers to corporations through a direct sales force. Canon sold its personal photocopiers to end users through a dealer network. Thus Canon has adopted a different product, along with different selling and distribution strategies. They identified a customer segment that was not currently served by existing competitors. Then they designed their products and delivery systems to fit the requirements of this customer niche. New product innovations from Canon strengthen its leadership in imaging technology. In 2009, Canon has reaffirmed its commitment to innovation in product development with the launch of 38 consumer products ranging from an innovative new Digital SLR camera in its flagship EOS range to a germ resistant calculator, and a first voice guided printer. The new SELPHY ES40 is the first printer, which talks to its user. It provides spoken instructions on how to operate the printer in seven different languages; the guidance also gives advice to assist users of all ages to simplify the printing process. Successful product innovation requires more than the management of technology; it also must address users’ problems and needs, how the product will be used, and for what purpose. Conducting marketing research to obtain customers requirements and needs is a fundamental feature of Canon’s strategic innovation process, which the company adds onto its product innovation cycle. The new EOS 7D digital SLR camera is a completely new design created to meet the specific demands of photographers. During extensive development Canon went back to the drawing board, listening to photographers worldwide, in order to design the new digital camera to meet their specific needs. Commenting on the creation of the EOS 7D, Mr. Uchidoi, Group Executive of Photo Products Group, said, â€Å"We consulted over 5,000 photographers worldwide and asked them what they most wanted to see from a camera. Matching this insight with cutting-edge technology, we were able to develop a camera that truly gives photographers the versatile tool they require to experiment with their images. † Markides (Markides, 1990) argues that successful innovative companies need to adopt a new thinki ng process. New ideas emerge more easily if managers can escape their mechanistic way of thinking and look at an issue from different perspectives or angles. Thinking ‘out side of the box’ enables Canon to create new ideas and pioneer new trends. One area, which Canon has foreseen, was the growing importance of reducing global warming and becoming more ‘green’. Long before it was in fashion, Canon introduced a collection and recycling program for used toner cartridges. The company adopted a corporate-wide lifecycle assessment to understand and reduce its carbon footprint, and it has already achieved zero waste output at its worldwide plants. Canon has jointly developed a new bio-based plastic that incorporates plant-based and organic components to use in its products (Silverstein, 2010). Therefore, innovative thinking helps the company stay ahead of the competition. Another source of innovation is building on the organizations existing core competencies to create a new product or a new way of doing business that is totally different from the way competitors currently do business. Leveraging existing core competencies is therefore one way to create new products or new ways to compete. Canon’s core competencies lay in the combination of the precision mechanics, fine optics and microelectronics technologies that underline all their products (Prahalad and Hamel, 1990). However, most major breakthroughs occur not so much from amortizing existing competencies but from exploiting them to create and accumulate new strategic assets more quickly and cheaply than competitors. A company can use a core competence of a strategic asset in one small business unit (SBU) to help improve the quality of a strategic asset in another SBU (Markides, 1990). Because Canon is in two businesses, cameras and photocopiers, in which the processes of improving dealer effectiveness, speeding up product development or improving assembly-line productivity are similar, it can improve the quality of the strategic assets in its photocopier business by transferring competencies learned in its camera business and vice versa. Leveraging core competencies among Canon’s different business units therefore reduces the costs and saves valuable time. Through the years, Canon has continually provided a lot of innovative and revolutionary products. From the company’s very first product launched, a 35 mm focal plane-shutter camera called the Kwanon, to now a days most recent products, the company has integrated innovation to all of its business units. Canon is committed to developing innovative solutions to enhance business productivity that it invests 8% of annual turnover in R&D. This devotion to innovation translates to fact that the company is consistently rated in the top five most innovative companies in the world in terms of new patent registrations. Thus concluding, throughout disruptive, strategic and product innovation Canon stays one of the leaders in its markets.

En Dashes Clarify Compound Phrasal Adjectives

En Dashes Clarify Compound Phrasal Adjectives En Dashes Clarify Compound Phrasal Adjectives En Dashes Clarify Compound Phrasal Adjectives By Mark Nichol Some style guides recommend using en dashes in place of hyphens for a wide variety of uses, but The Chicago Manual of Style, the guidebook of record for most American publishing companies, advises a more limited set of applications. According to Chicago style, these sentences would all be written with hyphens, not en dashes: â€Å"He had long flown the San Francisco-Los Angeles run.† â€Å"In 1930, the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act went into effect.† â€Å"The final score was 6-5.† â€Å"After discussion, the board voted 6-3 to approve the project.† â€Å"Their father-son rivalry persisted for many years.† â€Å"The Michelson-Morley experiment was a significant milestone on the way to the theory of special relativity.† What, then, are en dashes for? First, they separate two numbers in a number range (as in the inclusive page numbers in a chapter, or the years of birth and death in a person’s life span). Second, the en dash functions as a superhyphen. It is this second function that this post details. In a simple phrasal adjective, two single words that, as a temporary compound, modify a noun are often hyphenated: â€Å"Her high-handed gesture backfired.† (The hyphen’s function is to eliminate ambiguity, so that the sentence is not understood as referring to a handed gesture that is high.) But when the first of the two terms in the temporary compound is itself a compound, the greater suspensive strength of the en dash is employed, as in â€Å"She wears jam jar–bottom glasses† or â€Å"The character’s origins go all the way back to the golden egg–laying magic goose.† Alternately, these sentences can be styled with hyphens between the three words in each phrasal adjective, as in â€Å"She wears jam-jar-bottom glasses† and â€Å"The character’s origins go all the way back to the golden-egg-laying magic goose.† This style is used when en dashes are discouraged or not an option, such as online (on Web sites, en dashes, unlike hyphens, require use of a code) or in newspapers, most of which do not use the longer symbol. However, such use of hyphenation does not demonstrate the subtle relationship between the elements of the phrasal adjective. In addition to linking an open compound to another adjective, an en dash serves to connect a proper noun to a word that indicates resemblance or another relationship: â€Å"The character is part Clint Eastwood–type cowboy.† â€Å"You can see him as a Leonardo da Vinci–like genius.† â€Å"She evolved from being a slick Mata Hari–esque female to a more rounded, tomboyish figure.† This structure clarifies that type refers, for example, to â€Å"Clint Eastwood,† not to â€Å"Eastwood† alone. En dashes connect the concepts in the following phrases: â€Å"Academy Award–winning actor,† pre–Industrial Revolution technology,† â€Å"ex–vice president,† and â€Å"non–United Nations action.† However, when connecting a term to a hyphenated compound, a simple hyphen is used, as in â€Å"non-English-speaking visitors† or â€Å"non-government-sponsored programs.† Another case in which a hyphen, not an en dash, is employed is â€Å"post-9/11,† because the short form of the month-date designation is not considered a compound. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:20 Computer Terms You Should KnowEnglish Grammar 101: Verb Mood25 Idioms with Clean

Voluntary disclosure reporting

Voluntary disclosure reporting Voluntary (or market) disclosure reporting presents beneficial social and environmental impacts on a company, compared to pressure-oriented one. Market disclosure reporting is on the rise (Peiyuan 2005, p.1). The content of market disclosure is designed to justify social values held by the company, keep pressure groups at bay, integrate the corporate social responsibility components as well as build the corporate image (by enhancing brand benefits) (Buniamin 2010, p.117; Peiyuan 2005, p.3).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Voluntary disclosure reporting specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This form of reporting can be the bases upon which a company achieves certification (such as ISO 14001) that proves environmental best practices are observed during company operations (that is, from cradle to grave of product life), particularly on pollution matters (Buniamin 2010, p.117). Annual company reports that supplement financia l statements allow pertinent stakeholders to access environmental information. According to Peiyuan (2005, p.3), most companies in China increasingly prefer corporate annual reports. While the annual reports are accessible to investors, corporate boards (decision makers) as well as the larger public, the disclosure index is strictly under check since they are the main information tools for the company. The other channel of reporting is social and environmental impact assessment (SEIA). These reports are highly technical and professional. These reports disclose comprehensively the outcomes from public participation and consultation with the regard to the pollution causes and impacts. Such requirements are hardly needed for corporate annual reporting. Moreover, SEIA report presents a broad spectrum for the disclosure index. Since the printing company has potential sources of adverse pollution of air, land and noise, competitors and pressure groups can use the SEIA report to the compan ys detriment. Corporate annual reports are relevant but rarely subject to environmental audits. Moreover, annual corporate reports focus on initiatives made towards environmental sustainability and conservation, rather than environment degradation, in particular. To a larger extent, corporate annual reports are marketing tools, thus, a wide range of media platforms can be used (Hooghiemstra 2000, p.56). As a company communicates directly to its investors (shareholders), environmental information can be packaged alongside financial statements. Various media platforms allow diversified report setting: board member or conference meeting (use pamphlets and power-point notes), mass media (use radio and television commentaries and adverts) as well as journal publication for long-term reference purposes. It is highly likely that curious and/or keen audience will receive information, since the packaging of annual reports is public friendly (Hooghiemstra 2000, p.56).Advertising Looki ng for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Concerns raised by any audience on the state of the environment can form the bases for a comprehensive SEIA study reporting. It is evident that proponents incur high financial costs while undertaking SIEA studies and audits, thus, should be undertaken when necessary or when adverse impacts are unforeseeable (zero/ null alternative). Since annual financial reporting is mandatory for any business, accommodating social and environmental aspects within the same report reduces cost of duplicating efforts. In other words, it allows for common budget planning and handling of different corporate annual report themes at a go. Printing services pollute less compared to coal ad fossil fuel combustion facilities or paper and plastic manufacturers. The fact that the client has the option to discern (exercise due diligence) between the choice of paper (recycled or non-re cycled) the blame for pollution shifts from the company to the next party. However, the company has the duty to inform, educate, and advocate for what is environmentally friendly. Legislations on and the enforcement of cleaner production may negate the need for SEIA reports. References Buniamin, S 2010, ‘The Quantity and Quality of Environmental Reporting in Annual Report of Public Listed Companies in Malaysia’, Issues in Social and Environmental Accounting, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 115-135. Web. Hooghiemstra, R 2000, ‘Corporate Communication and Impression Management– New Perspectives Why Companies Engage in Corporate Social Reporting’, Journal of Business Ethic, vol. 27, pp. 55–68. Web. Peiyuan, G 2005, Corporate Environmental Reporting and Disclosure in China. Web.

The Myth of the Bra Burning Feminists of the Sixties

The Myth of the Bra Burning Feminists of the Sixties Who was it who said, â€Å"History is but a fable agreed upon?† Voltaire? Napoleon? It doesn’t really matter (history, in this case, fails us) because at least the sentiment is solid. Telling stories is what we humans do, and in some cases, veracity be damned if the truth isn’t as colorful as what we can make up. Then theres what psychologists call the Rashomon Effect, in which different people experience the same event in contradictory ways. And sometimes, major players conspire to advance one version of an event over the other. Burn, Baby, Burn Take the long-held assumption, found even in some of the most respected history books, that 1960s feminists demonstrated against the patriarchy by burning their bras. Of all the myths surrounding women’s history, bra burning has been one of the most tenacious. Some grew up believing it, never mind that as far as any serious scholar has been able to determine, no early feminist demonstration included a trash can full of flaming lingerie. The Birth of a Rumor The infamous demonstration that gave birth to this rumor was the  1968 protest of the Miss America contest. Bras, girdles, nylons, and other articles of constricting clothing were tossed in a trash can. Maybe the act became conflated with other images of protest that did include lighting things on fire, namely public displays of draft-card burning. But the lead organizer of the protest, Robin Morgan, asserted in a New York Times article the next day that no bras were burned. â€Å"That’s a media myth,† she said, going on to say that any bra-burning was just symbolic. Media Misrepresentation But that didn’t stop one paper, the Atlantic City Press, from crafting the headline â€Å"Bra-burners Blitz Boardwalk,† for one of two articles it published on the protest. That article explicitly stated: â€Å"As the bras, girdles, falsies, curlers, and copies of popular women’s magazines burned in the ‘Freedom Trash Can, the demonstration reached the pinnacle of ridicule when the participants paraded a small lamb wearing a gold banner worded ‘Miss America.† The second story’s writer, Jon Katz,  remembered years later that there was a brief fire in the trash can- but apparently, no one else remembers that fire. And other reporters did not report a fire. Another example of conflating memories? In any case, this certainly was not the wild flames described later by media personalities like Art Buchwald, who wasnt even near Atlantic City at the time of the protest. Whatever the reason, many media commentators, the same ones who renamed the  womens liberation movement  with the condescending term Womens Lib, took up the term and promoted it. Perhaps there were some bra-burnings in imitation of the supposed leading-edge demonstrations that didnt really happen, though so far theres been no documentation of those, either. A Symbolic Act The symbolic act of tossing those clothes into the trash can was meant as a serious critique of the modern beauty culture, of valuing women for their looks instead of their whole self. Going braless felt like a revolutionary act- being comfortable above meeting social expectations. Trivialized in the End Bra-burning quickly became trivialized as silly rather than empowering.  One Illinois legislator was quoted in the 1970s, responding to an  Equal Rights Amendment  lobbyist, calling feminists braless, brainless broads. Perhaps it caught on so quickly as a myth because it made the womens movement look ridiculous and obsessed with trivialities. Focusing on bra burners distracted from the larger issues at hand, like equal pay, child care, and reproductive rights. Finally, since most magazine and newspaper editors and writers were men, it was highly unlikely they would give credence to the issues bra burning represented: unrealistic expectations of female beauty and body image.

Film review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Film review - Essay Example Despite Israel’s desire for peace, its detractors proceed the efforts of indicting it. Dershowitz made the film attractive, forming the mix of interviews of historians and politicians. We are able to hear, for example, the opinions of Michael Oren and Aharon Barak. Sometimes Dershowitz appears in front of his listeners, commenting on some issues or giving us the hint about the next episode. Sometimes the viewer sees him conducting and talking to some of his interviewers. For those who do not see contradiction being concerned about human rights, the book â€Å"Palestine: Peace, Not Apartheid† by Jimmy Carter was written. He supports this idea and his book contains many attacks on Israel. This work had pushed Dershowitz to make  his own project The Case for Israel. This part begins with the Carter’s arrival at Brandeis University in order to publicize the book. His idea was that Palestine has more rights, including the rights for land, than Israel. He said they do not want negotiation, Palestinians want to be separate. Dershowitz said he can’t â€Å"fully comprehend† this position and he had a lot to talk about and challenged him to hold a debate, but Jimmy Carter refused (â€Å"The Case for Israel†). Alex Safian, an associate director, tells that Dershowitz found discrepancies in that Carter spoke at meetings and interviews, and that was published in his book in fact (â€Å"The Case for Israel†). This film was made as a response to Carter. It is possible to listen to an opinion of professor of law Amnon Rubinstein, who proves that in Israel â€Å"the law is equal to all citizens, all residents† without taking into account race, skin color, gender and religion (â€Å"The Case for Israel†). Dershowitz has courage to claim that Carter â€Å"has blood on his hands of four thousand Palestinians and over a thousand of Israelis and is a co-conspirator of the crime against Palestinians† (â€Å"The Case for

Double Reckoning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Double Reckoning - Essay Example The cracking of early morning light, darkness has enveloped the ship. And because we have been sailing for God knows how long, the men are becoming more irritable and anxious. The Captain has to do all that he could, for morale and for avoiding mutiny. It started as a low rumble at first. That was a sound difficult to understand, for it is coming from the hearts of overjoyed men. This emotion was almost alien to all on board for it seems to be only yesterday when all hope is lost. It seems just a few nights ago when everybody seemed so sure that this was a lost cause. The journey it seems is staggering like drunken seamen moving at a very slow pace. It was confusing and disheartening that some had questioned the accuracy of the instruments and the calculations. Aided only by the faint light from the moon it was unmistakable that we saw hills, trees and wild flowers that bloom. The area is rugged and strong but we have come for this and we will rise to the challenge of the last remain ing obstacle. This is it. Yet a glance sideways to the Captain revealed an unexpected sight. He seemed subdued and poised. He seemed not wanting to join the spontaneous party on board. This is the end of all desire for this voyage. When it seems so close it seems the vision before him knocked the breath out of him. But it was only temporary. ... It was confusing and disheartening that some had questioned the accuracy of the instruments and the calculations. Yet when everybody seemed to drown their sorrow in sleep, it was the time when the watchman bellowed a scream of pure delight. Ahoy! Land! And the officers took turns in peering through the scope as they themselves could not believe that the fate of the mission has suddenly turned into something good and great. Aided only by the faint light from the moon it was unmistakable that we saw hills, trees and wild flowers that bloom. The area is rugged and strong but we have come for this and we will rise to the challenge of the last remaining obstacle. This is it. Yet a glance sideways to the Captain revealed an unexpected sight. He seemed subdued and poised. He seemed not wanting to join the spontaneous party on board. This is the end of all desire for this voyage. When it seems so close it seems the vision before him knocked the breath out of him. But it was only temporary. At the crack of dawn, when everything is clear, when the new world is in full view, the heart is ready to do battle. Here is a new world to be shaped according to the patron's desire. Here is a new world needing a helping hand to be civilized and indoctrinated. Right before their eyes is all that they expected and more. Do they have what it takes Sooner than later the shores will be filled with natives. On whether they will welcome us with open arms or raise it with poisoned arrows only time can tell. As the ships approach these are buoyed not only from the fresh swells but the lightness of feeling as well. Then we begin to focus on the task on hand. The new world is not yet paradise it has to be subdued first and

Mobile Van Restaurant Company Analysis Coursework

Mobile Van Restaurant Company Analysis - Coursework Example The name of the mobile van restaurant suggested is Fastbite Inc. and the target group of our business would be the executives who belong to the white and the blue collar working class. The van would operate from 6 am in the morning to 10 pm and we will sell breakfast such as raffles near Singapore MRT station car park or central of Singapore. However, in the afternoon during 11 to 2 pm, we will sell lunch in areas such as Tuas, Loyang Way or Woodand while after 2-5pm, we will deliver orders to our customers. Mobile van restaurants were more commonly found in Somerset MRT and East Coast Park but there are many other areas where can be covered by us. Besides serving the areas where factories are located, we will also sell food in deserted areas because this is the place where food is not available and it is also easy to locate vans in these areas since they are movable. Therefore, we will also sell food in boon lay area forest which is the place where the soldiers are trained. Since no thing is available for the soldiers to eat, they will buy the food we will offer them so the risk will be low. However, in the cities there are many other restaurants and options available to the customers which would make it difficult for us to attract the customers. The population of Singapore is 4,740,737 and 77% of the population falls in the age group of 15 to 64 years of age. Singapore has a 92.5% of literacy rate and unemployment rate of 2.1% which means that most of the population is employed which means that none of the individual living in Singapore lives below poverty line and even the rate of inflation is just 2.8%.1 Business Operation and management We will sell ready packed food which will be prepared from a home based kitchen and the mobile van will be used for selling purpose only. We will require both physical and human capital which will be our key resources to operate the business. For the van, we will hire two individuals while for the kitchen, we will hire three people to cook, pack and receive orders. For the need of physical capital we will buy a van. Convenience is the main benefit that we aim to give to our customers which will also be our competitive edge. We did a break even analysis which showed that our business idea would work well. The Industry Data that we collected gave us all the information about mobile van restaurants and some of the possible risks include the external factors such as changes in any government policies or weather changes and to meet these, we will have a backup plan. Business features, functionality and benefits Some of the business features includes convenience we provide to our customers along with nutritious and well packed warm food. Our business would operate mainly on a mobile van on which we will sell our food items. Although we have competition around, we will develop product differentiation on the basis of branding, service and location. Our business will operate in monopolistic competition which me ans an imperfect competition in which the products are substitutes but will be sold by the competitors will only be differentiated on the basis of branding and service. For this, we conducted market analysis to know more about the industry and competition. Branding Fastbite Inc. is our suggested name which would include pastries, sandwiches and minced noodles while we will sell barbecue including sea food and chicken wings, beef noddle and Kway Teow, chicken noddles and rice, curry

The root causes of the Turmoil in the Middle East Research Paper

The root causes of the Turmoil in the Middle East - Research Paper Example 4). It is generally conceded, however, that the countries that comprise the Middle East include Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Kuwait, Morocco, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Libya, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia (Middle East Information Network, 2010). From as far back as history records, the Middle East region has been beset by armed unrest and turmoil, of every possible kind – between the Arabs and Israelis on territory, between two or more Arab nations on borders, between Arab nations based on alliances in the Cold War, and even within Arab nations in the form of interracial or ethnic conflicts. More recently, civil social unrest against autocratic regimes, similar to those in eighteenth century Europe, ushered in a different type of turmoil that expressed the popular desire for democratic reforms. This study shall briefly discuss the principal causes of turmoil in the Middle East, namely: (1) the int erests vested by the Western superpowers in the region; (2) the contest for territorial control and misspecification of boundaries, and (3) the clamour for democratic governance and the end of kleptocracy and autocracy. Interest of superpowers in trade access and oil reserves The geographical location of the Middle East played an important role in the origin and progress of turmoil in the region. ... Even in contemporary times, its strategic location has sparked occasional military offensives, such as that mounted by Israel against Egypt when the latter denied access to Israeli shipping through the Suez Canal (Milton-Edwards & Hinchcliffe, 2008). Besides being the trade gateway to three continents, the region is also situated over the world’s largest oil reserves, representing roughly two-thirds of all the oil supply internationally. Over 60% of the proven oil reserves in the world is to be found in the Persian Gulf, for which stakes the world’s superpowers had played for. This has been the principal interest of the U.S. and the USSR in the region during the Cold War. Other factors such as the U.S.-Israeli alliance precipitated the USSR-Afghanistan tie-up in the post-World War II power alignment, which served to establish their bid for control of the region’s oil (Heini, 1970). One may argue that the world’s superpowers have interests around the globe at one time or another, but despite interventions from the major developed countries, this fact does not necessarily lead to the continuous state of turmoil or unrest that is evident in the Middle East. Thus while it is an important external cause, it is one that impacts most those countries that are weak or unstable. Contestation of territorial control and illogical boundaries Many point to the Israeli-Arab war as a religious war; in truth, it is more a territorial war. The seeds of conflict were sown in 1947, when Britain withdrew from Palestine and a U.N. resolution called for the partition of Palestine into two, a Jewish state and an Arab state. Resistance to this partition erupted into hostilities between

International Business Management - Eastern Europe Essay

International Business Management - Eastern Europe - Essay Example 2. The maximum rate of Income tax that could be levied after the tax holiday period of 10 years should be fixed at not more than 20 percent of the taxable earnings: In addition to benefit of the tax holiday period the developing countries normally offer concessional rates income tax for any joint venture arrangements. 3. Free conversion and free transferability of funds from and to Hungary to European or US destinations2: Though these facilities were available at the time of negotiation the Hungarian government should make a commitment for the uninterrupted continuance of these facilities, which is very important for the profitable functioning of the join venture arrangement. 4. Concessional duty rates on the import of engines and reduction in the VAT (Value Added Tax) being charged by the Hungarian Government: The import duty on engines depending on the size of the vehicle varied from 10 to 40 percent and there was an additional VAT of 25 percent charged by the Hungarian government. Though Hungary is a signatory to the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) the country was free to vary the duty and VAT structures as it may deem fit in the case of automobiles. Hence there is the need to get the government committed on the basic duty structures which is advantageous to GM Europe. In addition to the tax incentives it is also important that the Hungarian government should provide basic infrastructural facilities to fac... Hence there is the need to get the government committed on the basic duty structures which is advantageous to GM Europe. (ii) Provision of Infrastructural Facilities: In addition to the tax incentives it is also important that the Hungarian government should provide basic infrastructural facilities to facilitate the successful operation of the project. Such infrastructural facilities may include the provision of natural gas to the site in addition to the provision of water, electrical power as may be required, well maintained roads for easy transportation and hassle-free physical movement of engines, components and cars during import and export. (iii) Protection from Competition: In order to gain a distinct competitive advantage there should be a commitment from the Hungarian government that at least for an initial period of 5 years or so the import of cars needs to be banned. Since the Hungarian market was small and the affordability of Hungarian population was also less there is the need for this condition. The country could get other advantages in the form of generation of additional employment and development of local suppliers which need to be traded against the protection needed by the GM Europe for its joint venture in Hungary. Though at the start, the GM plant would be small the facility could be enlarged with modernizing and restructuring of the economy. This is usually the case with any developing economy where there are going to be economic reforms the local industry would naturally develop along with the measures for economic reforms. b. Issues to be raised with RABA: The following issues are to be discussed with RABA for possible acceptance as

Portfolio Theory and Investment Analysis Term Paper

Portfolio Theory and Investment Analysis - Term Paper Example wa + wb + wc = 1. E(rp) = waE(ra) + wbE(rb) + wcE(rc ) 0.6(-0.2) + 0.3(0.1) + 0.1(0.04) = -0.086 Hence the strategy before the 2007 economic crisis would have realised an expected return of -8.6% on investment. The strategy adopted from 2007 onwards in the light of the crisis would realise: E(rp) = waE(ra) + wbE(rb) + wcE(rc ) 0.4(-0.2) + 0.4(0.1) + 0.2 (0.04) = -0.032 The strategy adopted after 2007 would realise an expected return of -3.2% on investment. As a result, the benefit of the strategy adopted from 2007 would be a reduced lose of 5.4% II. Advisability of investing more funds in UK equities. With the managers of the funds thinking of investing more funds into equity in the market, it is important for the managers to analyse the UK equities in a risk-return relationship. Hence when analysing the risk premium of the equity with the rest of the asset class, the return differential will be attributed to the difference in the risk associated with equity as opposed to bonds. The equity line will be normally "shakier" than the bond line. As evident from the data provided, Wealth invested in equity for the past 20 years has been more volatile than wealth invested in bonds (the UK equity having a risk of 16% as compared to 5% for bonds and cash for 0.3% in derivatives). Despite the higher return, the risks were higher as well. The fund’s managers should care about the riskiness of any investment especially in a volatile market. As a result, they should also be willing to trade a lower rate of investment return for "insurance" that their principal will be secure. This is called risk-aversion -- and all things being equal, most investors would prefer less risk to more. At the same time, when analysing the Standard Deviation as a measure of risk, the UK equity returns are riskier and more volatile. Even with the future projections of 8% returns per annum, the projected risk is projected to be at 18% for UK equity and 19% for overseas equity respectively an d at the same time, their correlation is very high at 0.8% between the UK and overseas equity making diversification not an option since it will not create any positive benefits of diversification. Due to the fact that the fund’s managers will be holding different portfolios, it would be important for them to use other statistical and non statistical data to be able to make informed decisions like the beta in respect to the market, fundamental ratios such as Book to Market Ratio and Earnings Price Ratio. III. Advantage of investing in the funds in international equities rather than UK equities. Due to the fact that stock market investing is risky, in the wake of the financial crisis, it is recommended for the fund’s managers to hold a well-diversified portfolio (including international diversification) to reduce risk as supported by the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) and the Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT). The fund’s manager, after analysing international mar ket correlations in relation to the returns of various national markets due to difference in levels of economic growth and timings of business cycles, would allocate investments among these markets as a means of rebalancing their portfolios and reducing risks in favor of foreign equities (Rezayat and Yavas 440-458). In analysing the data provided, international equity portfolio diversification would be recommended based on the existence of low correlations among national stock markets and

International Business Management - Eastern Europe Essay

International Business Management - Eastern Europe - Essay Example 2. The maximum rate of Income tax that could be levied after the tax holiday period of 10 years should be fixed at not more than 20 percent of the taxable earnings: In addition to benefit of the tax holiday period the developing countries normally offer concessional rates income tax for any joint venture arrangements. 3. Free conversion and free transferability of funds from and to Hungary to European or US destinations2: Though these facilities were available at the time of negotiation the Hungarian government should make a commitment for the uninterrupted continuance of these facilities, which is very important for the profitable functioning of the join venture arrangement. 4. Concessional duty rates on the import of engines and reduction in the VAT (Value Added Tax) being charged by the Hungarian Government: The import duty on engines depending on the size of the vehicle varied from 10 to 40 percent and there was an additional VAT of 25 percent charged by the Hungarian government. Though Hungary is a signatory to the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) the country was free to vary the duty and VAT structures as it may deem fit in the case of automobiles. Hence there is the need to get the government committed on the basic duty structures which is advantageous to GM Europe. In addition to the tax incentives it is also important that the Hungarian government should provide basic infrastructural facilities to fac... Hence there is the need to get the government committed on the basic duty structures which is advantageous to GM Europe. (ii) Provision of Infrastructural Facilities: In addition to the tax incentives it is also important that the Hungarian government should provide basic infrastructural facilities to facilitate the successful operation of the project. Such infrastructural facilities may include the provision of natural gas to the site in addition to the provision of water, electrical power as may be required, well maintained roads for easy transportation and hassle-free physical movement of engines, components and cars during import and export. (iii) Protection from Competition: In order to gain a distinct competitive advantage there should be a commitment from the Hungarian government that at least for an initial period of 5 years or so the import of cars needs to be banned. Since the Hungarian market was small and the affordability of Hungarian population was also less there is the need for this condition. The country could get other advantages in the form of generation of additional employment and development of local suppliers which need to be traded against the protection needed by the GM Europe for its joint venture in Hungary. Though at the start, the GM plant would be small the facility could be enlarged with modernizing and restructuring of the economy. This is usually the case with any developing economy where there are going to be economic reforms the local industry would naturally develop along with the measures for economic reforms. b. Issues to be raised with RABA: The following issues are to be discussed with RABA for possible acceptance as

Fiscal Federalism in Nigeria Essay Example for Free

Fiscal Federalism in Nigeria Essay The question of an acceptable formula for revenue sharing among the component tiers of the Nigerian nation is one of the most protracted and controversial debates in the political and macroeconomic management of the economy. This debate has its foundations in the history and evolution of the Nigerian federation. â€Å"Revenue allocation or the statutory distribution of revenue from the Federation Account among the different levels of government has been one of the most contentious and controversial issues in the nation’s political life. So contentious has the matter been that none of the formulae evolved at various times by a commission or by decree under different regimes since 1964 has gained general acceptability among the component units of the country. Indeed, the issue, like a recurring decimal, has painfully remained the first problem that nearly every incoming regime has had to grapple with since independence. In the process, as many as thirteen different attempts have been made in devising an acceptable revenue allocation formula, each of which is more remembered for the controversies it generated than issues settled† Fiscal federalism refers to the scope and structure of the tiers of government responsibilities and functions as well as the allocation of resources among the tiers of government. Perhaps the most important issue of fiscal federalism is the revenue allocation formula, the sharing of national revenue among the various tiers of government (vertical revenue sharing) as well as the distribution of revenue among the state governments (that is, horizontal revenue allocation). The centralization of Nigeria’s fiscal federalism began with the report of the Dina Commission (1968) which argued that an appropriate revenue allocation system should result in a more equitable distribution of revenue among the states to achieve a balanced development of the federation. Revenue allocation can be described as a method(s) of sharing the centrally generated revenue among the different tiers of government and how the amount allocated to a particular tier is shared among its components. Nigeria is a federal state – under the federal system of government, federation or centrally-generated revenue is shared among the three levels of government, namely; the federal government, the states and the local governments. The theory of revenue sharing in a federal state is that each level of government receives an allocation of financial resources tailored to their specific requirements as defined by the mandate of legislative competence, their actual situation and the statutory indices of calculation. In Nigeria, decisions as to what proportion of centrally-generated revenue that would be retained by the federal government, the proportion that will be shared among the state governments and the proportion that will go to the local government has always been a problem, due to the fact that there is no consensus of opinion as to what could be seen as an ideal formula. The principles that guide the implementation of intergovernmental fiscal relations include: (a) The Principle of Diversity: The federal system must have the ability to accommodate a large variety of diversities. Hence, the fiscal system must provide scope for variety and differences to supply national, regional and local public goods. (b) The Principle of Equivalence: Based on the geographical incidence of different public goods, allocative efficiency requires the equalization of locational advantages arising from inter-jurisdictional differences with a combination of taxes and public goods and services. This requires the use of fiscal instruments for achieving macroeconomic objectives of growth, stabilization and full employment by residents of different geopolitical units; this requirement controls for what is often referred to as â€Å"central city exploitation thesis†. (d) Minimum Provision of Essential Goods and Services: This ensures that fiscal federalism guarantees all citizens, irrespective of where they reside, the minimum provision of ertain basic public goods and services. (e) Principle of Fiscal Equalization: In order to ensure a minimum level of public goods and services same degree of fiscal equalization is required. This is as a result of differences in resource endowment. (f) The Efficiency Principle: This principle implies that efficiency must be applied in the allocation of resources (g) The Principle of Derivation: The component units of a system should be able to control some of its own resources as they desire. h) The Principle of Locational Neutrality: Interregional fiscal differences tend to influence location choices of individuals and firms. Therefore, policy should focus on minimizing distortions due to some interference. Hence, differential taxes which create locational distortions should be avoided as much as practicable. (i) The Principle of Centralized Redistribution: This principle states that the redistribution function of fiscal policy through progressive taxation and expenditure programmes should be centralized at the federal level. That is, if the redistributive function is decentralized, it can result in distortions in location decisions. It should be noted that the above principles are not mutually consistent. There are several challenges and contending issues confronting intergovernmental fiscal relations in Nigeria: 1) Non – Correspondence Problem Ideally, each level of government should be given adequate resources to allow it discharge its responsibilities. Because this is not possible, there is usually a lack of correspondence between the spending responsibilities and the tax powers/revenue sources assigned to different levels of government. It is this incongruence that is often referred to as the non-correspondence problem. In Nigeria, most of the major sources of revenue come under the jurisdiction of the federal government yet lower levels of government are supposed to generate internal revenue. There is, therefore, the need to resolve the imbalance between assigned functions and tax powers. The issues concerning fiscal relations among the constituent units of the Nigerian federation that remain mostly unresolved are the divergence between assigned functions and tax powers, principle of horizontal and vertical revenue allocation, dependence of states and local governments on federal sources of funding, tendency towards concentration and federal presence in the states (Fadahunsi, 1998). The five principles currently applied in the horizontal revenue allocation formula are far from acceptable to all the stakeholders. 2) Fiscal Autonomy and Independence The issue of relative fiscal autonomy and independence of the state and local governments in a true federal structure goes with the corollary issue of the correspondence of governmental functions and revenue sources. Since the creation of the twelve-state structure in 1967, states and local governments have been excessively dependent on the Federation Account. This independence must be reduced if the federating units are to be free to pursue their own development goals without being hampered by the unpredictable fluctuations in their shares of the Federation Account. It is important that revenue sources should be reallocated and made compatible with the fluctuations stated for each tier of government to enhance steady and proper funding of administrative and developmental activities instead of the often experienced unexpected financial constrictions at the two lower tiers of government. 3) Oil Producing States, Oil Producing Local Government Administrative Areas or Communities Professor Omo Omoruyi in his treatise â€Å"the Politics of Oil: who owns the oil, Nigeria, states or communities† (2000) raised three salient questions on true ownership of oil in Nigeria. The question of local control over local resources is an established constitutional principle in federal systems. But the way the Nigerian federal system developed under the external colonial order (1954-60) and continued under the period of geo-ethno-military internal colonial order (1960-1999) and in the democratic dispensation between 1999 to date is yet an unresolved contending issues in the discourse about Nigeria’s federalism. He challenged the â€Å"Tripod† approach to Nigeria’s problem where the three major ethnic nationalities decide the content and the trend of national issues. This tripod approach to Nigerian politics, should have been done away with by now, with the introduction of the notion of ‘federal character’, which takes states in the federation as the units of representation. The tripod approach to Nigerian politics applies to how the oil, which comes from the non-majority areas, is approached in the political and economic discourse. We should also be aware of the feeling among the majority ethnic nationalities that the areas producing oil by virtue of powerlessness in the military and politics should not be allowed to lay claim to the oil from their areas as of right†. However, theres a distinction between oil producing communities and oil producing states. This is the basis of the activities of the Traditional Rulers of the Producing Communities who are dealing with the President and want the money due to states on the basis of the 13% derivation in the Constitution should be paid to the â€Å"oil producing communities/local government areas†. The Traditional Rulers’ argument is that â€Å"communities† own oil and not â€Å"states†. This is an unresolved issue and separates the communities in riverside areas directly affected by oil spillages from their compatriots in landed areas from enjoying the full benefits of allocations to producing states. One does not know the end of this argument. How should the National Assembly address this matter? The federal government should find a way of making the oil producing local government administrative areas as shareholders in the joint venture arrangements with the oil companies, thus making them stakeholders in the oil industry. There was the issue of who should be spending the oil money. Should it be the Nigerian government in conjunction with the oil producing areas? Should it be the oil producing areas alone? The Constitution from 1960 till after the civil war up till 1978 gave the right of ownership to the federal government but the proceeds were shared between the federal government and the regions or states on the basis of derivation like the agricultural crops. 4) Federation Account and the Derivation Fund It is important to define what constitutes the Federation Account – to which the various vertical revenue allocation formulae have been applied and what should be directly financed from it. Up to 1990, the amount accruing yearly to the Federation Account was still over 96% of totally federally collected revenue; but since 1991, when it first dropped to about 75% and nose-dived to around 35% by 1997, it showed no sign of recovery (Olowononi, 1999). It is therefore clear, that in such a situation, whatever the vertical formula applicable, there must still be a serious fiscal imbalance between the ederal government and the two lower tiers of government. It is crucial to redress this revenue imbalance in the spirit of balanced true federalism. What appears to account for this imbalance is the assertion of the self-claimed right by the federal government to finance various first-line charges from the Federation Account before the application of the vertical formula. The first-line charges include funding for external debt service, national priority projects, NNPC priority projects, special reserve account, and excess proceeds of the crude oil sales account, and in addition, the joint venture cash calls account. These deductions are made from the proceeds of crude oil sales before the derivation fund in the Federation Account is arrived at, and after which further deductions for special funds and the funding of the federal capital territory are made. It will seem more logical, with the exception of the joint venture case calls, that these various charges which are federal government obligations be financed solely from the federal government’s revenue proper, that is, from its share of the Federation Account or from its revenue from other sources. Therefore, in order to determine what constitutes the derivation fund, resolving the issue of the Federation Account is crucial. Thereafter, the derivation formula to be utilized can be arrived at. 5) Oil – Producing Areas and the Derivation Principle The crude oil production has been the most important economic activity in the Nigerian economy since the early 1970s is not subject to debate. Its impact is not limited to its contributing almost 90% of Nigeria’s total foreign exchange earnings but also to the fact that the national budgets are predicated on the expected annual production and price of crude oil.